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The current literature supports an inverse association between consumption of dairy foods and CRC risk22, in agreement with the results of the current umbrella review. Dairy products may lead to lower CRC risk due to their high calcium concentration23; calcium forms in the colonic lumen insoluble soaps by binding to tumor-promoting free fatty acids and bile acids21,24. Other pathways include regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis through the preservation of intestinal epithelial cell integrity, and maintenance of immune homeostasis in the gut21. Apart from the role of calcium, studies have shown that lactic acid bacteria may absorb mutagens from cooked foods, deactivate intestinal carcinogens, and reduce intestinal inflammation21,25.